| Attrition Mp3, Attrition Music Lyrics
| |
Attrition biography, Attrition discography
Language attrition is the loss of a first or second language or a portion of that language by individuals; it should be distinguished from language loss within a community (the latter process is referred to as language shift or language death).Language attrition is related to multilingualism and language acquisition.Many factors are at play in learning (acquisition) and unlearning (loss) the first and second languages.This can be a simple reversal of learning.In other cases, the type and speed of attrition depends on the individual, also on his or her age and skill level.For the same second language, attrition has been affected differently depending on what is the dominant first language environment.Academic study origins
2 Definitions and areas of loss
3 Problem areas in research on attrition
3.The aim of this conference was to discuss areas of second language (L2) attrition and to ideate on possible areas of future research in L2 loss.The conference revealed that attrition is a wide topic covering different types of language loss and that there are many possible reasons for the loss.L1 loss in an L2 setting can be observed amongst immigrants who lose their first language in their new environment.L2 loss in an L1 setting is usually observed in individuals who have lost the ability to use an L2 that was perhaps studied at school in their L1 setting.Hansen (2001) modified van Els taxonomy to relate to Japanese contexts.She defined eight areas of possible language attrition.Four of these areas are possible L1 loss:
1.L1 minorities in Japan (Ainu, Okinawans, Koreans, Chinese and Nikkei.Four of these are possible L2 loss:
5.L1 Japanese who lived abroad and returned to Japan.L1 Japanese learning and attrition abroad.Problem areas in research on attrition
When studying the loss of languages (either the L1 or the L2), a number of problems arise.What follows below are areas in the study of attrition where problems may occur.Hout (1986) identify a number of difficulties and problem areas related to L1 language attrition.Lexical borrowing does not indicate loss.And many of those languages have given language items to English.Recent borrowings into English for example are sushi and tsunami from Japanese.Therefore, defining a norm or a standard is difficult.These are idealized forms of language which the majority of L1 or L2 speakers never attain.L2
Lambert and Moore (1986) attempted to define numerous hypotheses regarding the nature of language loss, crossed with various aspects of language.Lambert, in personal communication with Kopke and Schmid (2004), described the results as 'not substantial enough to help much in the development of the new field of language skill attrition'.Yoshitomi (1992) attempted to define a model of language attrition that was related to neurological and psychological aspects of language learning and unlearning.She discussed four possible hypotheses and five key aspects related to acquisition and attrition.Reverse order: last learned, first forgotten.Yoshitomi and others, including Yukawa (1998) argue that attrition can occur so rapidly, it is impossible to determine the order of loss.Inverse relation: better learned, better retained.Language items that are acquired first also happen to be those that are most reinforced.As a result, hypotheses 1 and 2 capture the main linguistic characteristics of language attrition (Yoshitomi, p.Critical period: at or around age 9.Furthermore, various linguistic features (for example phonology or syntax) may have different stages or age limits for mastering.Order of Acquisition (last thing learned, first thing lost):
Citing the studies on the regression hypothesis that have been done, Yukawa (1998) says that the results have been contradictory.L1 and L2, and whether the L1 or the L2 is attriting).The threshold hypothesis states that there may be a level of proficiency that once attained, enables the attriting language to remain stable.They discovered that the length of time away from the Netherlands would not cause attrition for this generation of immigrants if they had many regular L1 contacts.This study is not without its limitations, however.The speed of retrieving a correct form or the actual production of an incorrect form is not indicative of loss but may be retrieval failure instead.In other words, what appears to be lost is in fact difficult to retrieve.Hindi and Urdu attrition in young children.In fact, a number of factors are at play in bilingual families.In her study, bicultural families that maintained only one language, the minority language, in the household, were able to raise bilingual, bicultural children without fail.In families that had more than one child, the older child was most likely to retain two languages, if it was at all possible.Linguistic features are then linked to age and the activation threshold hypothesis.Older children would have developed more linguistic features through greater usage, and thus, more likely to retain more of the attriting language than younger children.Other Factors:
Murtagh (2003) noted that schooling may be a factor.English grade 12 students during the summer vacation, and the role played by attitudes and motivation in promoting language achievement and language maintenance.In fact, the nature of language acquisition is still so complex and so much is still unknown, not all students will have the same experiences during the incubation period.Irish in Ireland with second level school students .Eighteen months later, Murtagh finds that the majority of groups 1 and 2 believe their Irish ability has attrited, the immersion group less so.The results from the tests, however, do not show any overall attrition .Time' as a factor did not exert any overall significant change on the sample's proficiency in Irish (Murtagh, p.Fujita (2002), in a study evaluating attrition among bilingual Japanese children, says that a number of factors are seen as necessary to maintain the two languages in the returnee child.At the same time, lack of L2 support in the schools in particular and in society in general results in an overall L2 loss .In sum
A number of factors are at play in L1 and L2 acquisition and attrition.In some cases, attrition is the reverse of acquisition.Learners motivated to keep their attriting L1 or L2 may very well maintain it.References
One Language or Two?Delayed and Typically Developing Children
Language Attrition: the Next Phase
Retention and Attrition of Irish as a Second Language (PDF: 5.MB) by Lelia Murtagh: PhD thesis, University of Groningen.Insights from Child Language Acquisition for Second Language Loss."The Loss of Language Skills".L1 Loss in an L2 environment: Dutch immigrants in France.Second Language English Attrition of Japanese Bilingual Children.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, Tokyo, Japan.Second Language Attrition: The Role of Motivation and Use.Japanese Attrition in Contexts of Japanese Bilingualism."Studies in Japanese Bilingualism Bilingual Education" (p.Investigating Second Language Attrition: An Introduction."Second Language Attrition: Evidence from Japanese Contexts" (p."Second Language Attrition: Evidence from Japanese Contexts" (p."Language Attrition in Progress, Studies on Language Acquisition" (p.Problem Areas in the Study of Language Attrition."Language Attrition in Progress, Studies on Language Acquisition" (p.Proefschrift (ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de Letteren), Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.Neurolinguistic aspects of second language development and attrition.Stockholm, Centre for Research on Bilingualism: Camridge University Press.Lexical retrieval difficulties in adult language attrition.Lexical maintenance and attrition in Japanese as a second language."Second Language Attrition: Evidence from Japanese Contexts" (p.Towards a Model of Language Attrition: Neurological and Psychological Contributions.L1 Japanese Attrition and Regaining: Three case studies of two early bilingual children.This page was last modified on 26 April 2008, at 23:42.Look up attrition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.This page was last modified on 5 November 2008, at 10:11.All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License."Are you sure you want to block this user?This is an easy way to select hikes which meet
your requirements.The page created from this result is fully
sortable and links to the hike reviews of the selected hikes.This however doesn't mean they are correct.Things change in the outdoors and some inaccuracies are to
be expected.Post general questions and discuss hiking issues.Hiking, Backpacking, and Mountaineering news.What's the scoop with hot springs?As the winter nears, getting up above the rain becomes an increasingly attractive idea!Area to give kudos, voice complains, give site suggestions or othwise get involved with Attrition.Attrition or Imperfect Contrition (Latin attero, "to wear away by rubbing"; p.The Council of Trent (Sess.This hatred of sin may arise from various motives, may be prompted by various causes.The detestation of sin arise from the love of God, Who has been grievously offended, then contrition is termed perfect; if it arise from any other motive, such its loss of heaven, fear of hell, or the heinousness of guilt, then it is termed imperfect contrition, or attrition.That there exists such a disposition of soul as attrition, and that it is a goodly things an impulse of the Spirit of God, is the clear teaching of the Council of Trent (Sess.And as to that imperfect contrition which is called attrition, because it is commonly conceived either from the consideration of the turpitude of sin, or from the fear of hell and of punishment, the council declares that if with the hope of pardon, it excludes the wish to sin, it not only does not make man a hypocrite and a greater sinner, but that it is even a gift of God, and an impulse of the Holy Spirit, who does not indeed as yet dwell in the penitent, but who only moves him whereby the penitent, being assisted, prepares a way for himself unto justice, and although this attrition cannot of itself, without the Sacrament of Penance, conduct the sinner to justification yet does it dispose him to receive the grace of God in the Sacrament of Penance.For smitten profitably with fear, the Ninivites at the preaching of Jonas did fearful penance and obtained mercy from Lord.Wherefore attrition, the council in Canon v, Sess.XIV, declares: "If any man assert that attrition .The doctrine of the council is in accord with the teaching of the Old and the New Testament.The Old Testament writers praise without hesitation that fear of God which is really "the beginning of wisdom" (Ps.We are told that "without fear there is no justification" (ibid, i, 28; ii, 1; ii, 19).New Testament
Even when the law of fear had given way to the law of love, Christ does not hesitate to inculcate that we must "fear him who can destroy both soul and body into hell" (Matthew 10:28).The Apostle appears not less insistent when he exhorts us to work out "our salvation in fear and trembling" lest the anger of God come upon us (Philippians 2:12).Clement of Alexandria (Stromata VII) speaks of righteousness which comes of love and rightousness arising from fear, and he speaks at length on the utility of fear, and answers all objections brought forward against his position.The most striking sentence is the one wherein he says: "cautious fear is therefore shown to be reasonable, from which arises repentence of previous sins", etc.Basil (fourth interrogatory on the Rule) speaks of the fear of God and of His judgments, and he asserts that for those who are beginning a life of piety "exhortation based on the fear is of greatest utility", he quotes the wise man asserting, "The fear of the Lord is the begining of wisdom", (P.Ambrose, in the fifteenth sermon on the Psalm cxviii speaks at large on godly fear which begets charity, begets love: Hunc timorem sequitur charitas (P.Augustine, treats fully the godliness of fear as a motive to repentance.In the 161st of his sermons (P.XXXVIII, 882 sqq), he speaks of refraining from sin for fear of God's judgments, and he asks: "Dare I say such fear is wrong"?The word itself, attrition, is of medieval origin.Even with these men its meaning was not so precise as in after years, though they all agreed that of itself it did not suffice to justify the sinner in God's sight.See the Scholastic traditions in article ABSOLUTION, and Palmieri, loc.There would perhaps have been little difficulty on this point if the distinction were kept in mind between that fear which is termed servilis, which touches will and heart, and that fear known as serviliter servilis, which though it makes man refrain from performing the sinful act, leaves the will to sin and the affection thereto.Attrition in the Sacrament of Penance
The Church not only regards the godliness of fear as a motive to repentance, but expressly defines that attrition, though it justifies not without the Sacrament of Penance, nevertheless disposes the sinner to receive grace in the sacrament itself (Sess.This particular phase of the doctrine of contrition in penance is first taught with clearness by the Schoolmen of the twelfth century, and particularly by St.Though some still preferred to follow the Lombards who insisted on perfect contrition, after St.At the council there was some oppositions to a clear definition, some of the fathers insisting on the necessity of perfect contrition, and it was perhaps for this reason that the decree was couched as above, leaving it still possible to doubt whether attrition was a proximate, or only a remote, disposition for justfication in the sacrament.Today the common teaching is that the council simply intended to define the sufficiency of attrition (Vacant, Dict.If perfect contrition, then, were always necessary, why did Christ institute a particular sacrament, since justification would always be imparted independently of the sacramental ceremony?If attrition is sufficient for justification in the Sacrament of Penance, then there seems no reason to deny its sufficiency when there is question of remitting sin through baptism, for the reason given above will apply equally in this place.The question has also been asked apropos of attrition when one receives a sacrament of the living in mortal sin, of which sin he is not conscious, will attrition with the sacrament suffice unto justification?Conditions
That attrition may make for justification, it must be interior, supernatural, universal, and sovereign (See Conditions in article CONTRITION.Interior, for the Council of Trent requires that it should exclude the will to sin.Supernatural, for Innocent XI condemned the proposition, "Probabile est sufficere attritionem naturalem modo honestam".Universal, for the motives of attrition (fear of hell, loss of heaven, etc) are of such a nature as to embrace all sins.Sovereign, for here again the ordinary motives of attrition (fear of hell, etc.The Reformers denied the honesty and godliness of attrition, and held that it simply made man a hypocrite.Bull of Leo X, Exurge Domine, prop.Alexander VIII, 7 December, 1690; also 44, 61, 62, condemned by Clement X, "Unigenitus", 8 September, 1717.Also Bull of Pius VI "Auctorem Fidei", prop.Catholic writers in the seventeenth century questioned, whether attrition must of necessity be accompanied at least by the begining of the love of God and that granted, whether such love was a disinterested love of God for His own sake, or whether it might not be that love called concupiscentiae, or love of God because He is our great good.Some held that in every real act of attrition there must be the beginning of love; others denied categorically this position, exacting only that sorrow which excludes affection for sin, and hope of pardon; others insisted that there must be at least a beginning of that love which has been termed above concupiscentiae; while stilt others exact only that love which begets hope.Still it is clear that Alexander considered as more probable the opinion stating attrition as sufficient for justification in the Sacrament of Penance even if it included not the beginning of love.The censure latae sententiae was omitted in the "Apostolicae Sedis".On the formula, "Ex attrito fit contritus" cf.New York: Robert Appleton Company.Farley, Archbishop of New York.Repentance for sin motivated by fear of punishment rather than by love of God.The reduction of the effectiveness of a force caused by loss of personnel and materiel.How to thank TFD for its existence?Tom Sawyer by Twain, Mark View in contextBut as much movement was necessary to ascend such a great height, some of the clay would become attached to its rough skin by attrition.The Lair of the White Worm by Stoker, Bram View in contextThis may be a war of attrition, or even now the unexpected may come, but to all effects and purposes Germany is beaten.
|
| |
|
 |
|
