| M-Au Spectrum Mp3, M-Au Spectrum Music Lyrics
| |
M-Au Spectrum biography, M-Au Spectrum discography
Contact MAU for additional information.MAU is uniquely qualified to help.Since its inception in 1973, Management, Analysis and Utilization, Inc.Result
British military victory and eventual Kenyan democracy.The core of the resistance was formed by members of the Kikuyu ethnic group, along with smaller numbers of Embu and Meru.It is sometimes called the Mau Mau Rebellion or the Mau Mau Revolt, or, in official documents, the Kenya Emergency.Muingi ("The Movement"), Muigwithania ("The Understanding"), Muma wa Uiguano ("The Oath of Unity") or simply "The KCA", after the Kikuyu Central Association that created the impetus for the insurgency.Etymology
2 Origins of the Mau Mau uprising
2.The closing of political options and the Central Committee
2.The urban resistance spreads
3.British military, settler and loyalist atrocities
6.This section does not cite any references or sources.November 2007)
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.The meaning of the term Mau Mau is much debated.It is the name of a range of hills (occurring in various geographical names e.Mau Escarpment, the Mau stream in Eastern Province, a place called Mau in the Rift Valley Province, etc.Lonsdale recommends this etymology on the ground that it requires no single originator.This apparently was heard by a journalist in the court as 'Mau Mau', and the following day the newspapers reported that the men had taken a 'Mau Mau' oath."Economic deprivation of the Kikuyu
For several decades prior to the eruption of conflict, the occupation of land by European settlers was an increasingly bitter point of contention.Most of the land appropriated was in the central highlands of Kenya, which had a cool climate compared to the rest of the country and was inhabited primarily by the Kikuyu tribe.They were, in effect, tenant farmers who had no actual rights to the land they worked, but had previously called home.Between 1936 and 1946, settlers steadily demanded more days of labour, while further restricting Kikuyu access to the land.The Kikuyu later formed the core of the highland uprising.At the same time, there was a small, but growing, class of Kikuyu landowners who consolidated Kikuyu lands and forged strong ties with the colonial administration, leading to an economic rift within the Kikuyu.The economic bifurcation of the Kikuyu set the stage for what was essentially a civil war within the Kikuyu during the Mau Mau Revolt.Those taking such oaths often believed that breaking them would result in death by supernatural forces.The original KCA oaths limited themselves to civil disobedience, but later rituals obliged the oath taker to fight and defend themselves from Europeans.However, the oaths became the focus of much speculation and gossip by settlers.While many of these stories were obviously exaggerated for effect, they helped convince the British government to send assistance to the colonists.Following a demand for Kenyan independence on 1 May 1950, the leadership of the EATUC was arrested.On 16 May, the remaining EATUC officers called for a general strike that paralyzed Nairobi for nine days and was broken only after 300 workers had been arrested and the British authorities made a show of overwhelming military force.The strike spread to other cities and may have involved 100,000 workers; Mombasa was paralyzed for two days.Nevertheless, the strike ultimately failed and the EATUC soon collapsed after its senior leadership was imprisoned.Nairobi from petty crooks to trade unionists.In contrast to the oaths used in the highlands, the oaths given by the Forty Group clearly foresaw a revolutionary movement dedicated to the violent overthrow of colonial rule.Sympathizers collected funds and even acquired ammunition and guns by various means.The closing of political options and the Central Committee
In May 1951, the British Colonial Secretary, James Griffiths, visited Kenya, where the Kenya African Union (KAU) presented him with a list of demands ranging from the removal of discriminatory legislation to the inclusion of 12 elected black representatives on the Legislative Council that governed the colony's affairs.The Central Committee also began to extend its oath campaign outside of Nairobi.Their stance of active resistance won them many adherents in committees throughout the White Highlands and the Kikuyu reserves.As a result, the KCA's influence steadily fell until by the start of the actual Uprising it had authority only in Kiambu District.The houses of Europeans were set on fire and their livestock hamstrung.These warning signs were ignored by the Governor, Sir Philip Mitchell, who was only months away from retirement, and Mau Mau activities were not checked.The first reaction against the uprising
In June 1952, Henry Potter replaced Mitchell as Acting Governor.Mau Mau plan for rebellion was in the works.Jomo Kenyatta, who would go on to become independent Kenya's first President, gave in to the pressure and gave speeches attacking the Mau Mau.On 17 August 1952, the Colonial Office in London received its first indication of the seriousness of the rebellion in a report from Acting Governor Potter.On 6 October, Sir Evelyn Baring arrived in Kenya to take over the post of Governor.Quickly realizing that he had a serious problem, on 20 October 1952 Governor Baring declared a State of Emergency.It was thought that Operation Jock Scott would decapitate the rebel leadership and that the Emergency would be lifted in several weeks.The amount of violence increased, however; two weeks after the declaration of the Emergency the first European was killed.While much of the senior leadership of the Nairobi Central Committee was arrested, the organization was already too well entrenched to be uprooted by the mass arrests.Local rebel committees took uncoordinated decisions to strike back over the next few weeks and there was an abrupt rise in the destruction of European property and attacks on African loyalists.Also, a section of settlers had treated the declaration of Emergency as a license to perpetrate excesses against suspected Mau Mau.British military presence
One battalion of the Lancashire Fusiliers was flown from the Middle East to Nairobi the first day of Operation Jock Scott.The cruiser Kenya came to Mombasa harbor carrying Royal Marines.The British fielded 55,000 troops in total over the course of the conflict, although the total number did not exceed more than 10,000 at any one time.Initially, British forces had little reliable intelligence on the strength and structure of the Mau Mau resistance.Senior British officers thought that the Mau Mau Uprising was a sideshow compared to the Malayan Emergency.The Council of Freedom declares war
By January 1953, the Nairobi Central Committee had reconstituted its senior ranks and renamed itself the Council of Freedom.The resistance did not have a national strategy for victory, had no cadres trained in guerrilla warfare, had few modern weapons and no arrangements to get more, and had not spread beyond the tribes of the central highlands most affected by the settler presence.Nevertheless, the lack of large numbers of initial British troops, a high degree of popular support, and the low quality of colonial intelligence gave the Land and Freedom Armies the upper hand for the first half of 1953.Large bands were able to move around their bases in the highland forests of the Aberdare mountain range and Mount Kenya killing Africans loyal to the government and attacking isolated police and Home Guard posts.Over 1800 loyalist Kikuyu (Christians, landowners, government loyalists and other Mau Mau opponents) were killed.The Mau Mau, operating from the safety of the forests, attacked mostly by night.They attacked isolated farms, but occasionally also households in suburbs of Nairobi.The Land and Freedom Armies had lookouts and stashes for clothes, weapons and even an armoury.They also had their own judges that could hand out fines and other penalties, including death.Mau Mau was punishable by a fine or worse.An average Mau Mau band was about 100 strong.The different leaders of the Land and Freedom Armies rarely coordinated actions, reflecting the lack of cohesion to the entire rebellion.White settlers reacted strongly to the insecurity.Many white settlers also joined auxiliary units like the Kenya Police Reserve (which included an active air wing), and the Kenya Regiment, a territorial army regiment.British colonial officials were also suspicious of the Kikuyu and took measures.They initially thought the Kikuyu Central Association was the political wing of the resistance.They made carrying a gun illegal and associating with Mau Mau capital offences.They organized their own intelligence network and made punitive sweeps into areas that were suspected of harbouring or supporting Mau Mau.In the weeks that followed, some suspected rebels were summarily executed by police and loyalist Home Guards, and many other Mau Mau implicated in the Lari massacre were subsequently brought to trial and hanged.The urban resistance spreads
In April 1953, a Kamba Central Committee was formed.Despite this, only three acts of sabotage were recorded against the railway lines during the emergency.Early in 1954 the KFRTU undermined a general strike that was called by the Central Committee.This was often used as an excuse for the shooting of suspects, so this provision was subsequently abandoned.Mau Mau and allied Africans, sometimes headed by white officers.Security forces screened 30,000 Africans and arrested 17,000 on suspicion of complicity, including many people that were later revealed to be innocent.The city remained under military control for the rest of the year.About 15,000 Kikuyu were interned and thousands more were deported to the Kikuyu reserves in the highlands west of Mount Kenya.However, the heaviest weight fell on the unions.While the sweep was very inefficient, the sheer number was overwhelming.Entire rebel Passive Wing leadership structures, including the Council for Freedom, were swept away to detention camps and the most important source of supplies and recruits for the resistance evaporated.When the program reached completion in October 1955, 1,077,500 Kikuyu had been concentrated into 854 "villages".Due in part to the sheer number of Kikuyu detainees and the lack of money budgeted for dealing with them, not even the bare essentials needed for humane internment were present.United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights."Ian Henderson was one of the colonial police officers credited with capturing Kimathi and suppressing the Uprising.The inability of the rebels to protect their supply sources marked the beginning of the end.The Passive Wing in the cities had disintegrated under the roundups and the rural Passive Wing was in state of siege on the central highlands and reserves.In 1953 some 15,000 Mau Mau guerrillas were at large.In January 1954 the King's African Rifles began Operation Hammer.They combed the forests of Aberdare mountains but met very little resistance; most guerrillas had already left.There they captured substantial numbers of guerrillas and killed 24 of 51 band leaders.In June 1956, a program of villagization and land reform consolidated the land holdings of the Kikuyu, thereby increasing the number of Kikuyu allied with the colonial government.The remainder belonged to various corporations who were willing to deal with an African majority government as long as the security situation stabilized.Casualties
The official number of Kenyans killed was estimated at 11,503 by British sources, but David Anderson places the actual number at higher than 20,000, and Caroline Elkins claims it is probably at least as high as 70,000, perhaps much higher.More recently, the demographer John Blacker, in an article in African Affairs, has estimated the total number of African deaths at around 50,000; half were children under 10.For security force casualties, see the information box at the top of the article.Of particular note is the number of executions authorized by the courts.In the first eight months of the Emergency, only 35 rebels were hanged, but by November 1954, 756 had been hanged, 508 for offenses less than murder, such as illegal possession of firearms.By the end of 1954, over 900 rebels and rebel sympathizers had been hanged, and by the end of the Emergency, the total was over 1,000.British military, settler and loyalist atrocities
British forces committed widespread human rights abuses, including rape, torture and castration.The number of Mau Mau fighters killed by the British and their military adjuncts was about 20,000, though it has been documented that large numbers of Kikuyu not directly involved in the rebellion were persecuted by the British.Many British settlers took an active role in the torture of Mau Mau suspects, running their own screening teams and assisting British security forces during interrogation.One British settler, describing helping Special Branch of the Kenya Police interrogate a Mau Mau suspect, stated that, "Things got a little out of hand.His brains went all over the side of the police station.Home guard troops (black Kenyan loyalists) were also responsible for the retaliation to the Lari massacre.Mau Mau atrocities
Mau Mau militants did commit serious human rights violations.The 1970 movie, The Cross and the Switchblade, starring Erik Estrada as Nicky Cruz, depicts these events.Maus" and how they are "eating missionary pie."In the Lenny Bruce monologue, "The Palladium," a British stage manager chastizes an American comedian by calling him "a bloody Mau Mau."Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire.Nairobi: Government of Kenya, 1960)
Caroline Elkins.Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt.Mark Curtis, Web of Deceit (Vintage, 2003), p.Anderson here states that at least 150,000 Kikuyu "spent some time behind the wire of a British detention camp."Matthieu Chedid, sorti en 2005.Droit d'auteur : Tous les textes sont disponibles sous les termes de la licence de documentation libre GNU (GFDL).Networks (DySpan) 2007, June 2007, Dublin, Ireland
O.For each content, make sure everything exists on ONE LINE.Otherwise, there will be JS errors.Spectrum Auctions: Yesterday's Heresy, Today's Orthodoxy,
Tomorrow's Anachronism.Industrial Advisory Board Research Talk, WINLAB,
October 10, 2002.Click small images to enlarge.
|
| |
|
 |
|
